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Foundations · easy

1. The OSI 7-Layer & TCP/IP 4-Layer Models

Encapsulation, decapsulation, and protocol stacks.

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Data traversing the internet undergoes encapsulation through protocol layers: - Layer 7 (Application): HTTP/3, DNS, gRPC, BGP. - Layer 4 (Transport): TCP (reliable, windowed byte-stream) vs UDP (unreliable, low-latency datagrams). - Layer 3 (Network): IPv4/IPv6 routing and ICMP control packets. - Layer 2 (Data Link): Ethernet frames, MAC addressing, ARP, VLAN tagging (802.1Q). - Layer 1 (Physical): Fiber optic pulses, copper voltages, RF modulation.

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  1. 1. Which layer of the OSI model handles end-to-end flow control, port multiplexing, and retransmissions?

  2. 2. What is the Protocol Data Unit (PDU) called at Layer 3 (Network Layer)?

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